BadImageFormatException error on Azure web app

I have published my website as a Azure web application(through Visual Studio publish) and I am getting a An unhandled exception has occurred while executing the System.BadImageFormatException: Index not found. (Exception from HRESULT: 0x80131124) error. The application however works fine on my local machine. Between the time when the application was working and now, the major changes that were made (to the application) were:

a. Added "Stripe.net" Version="25.19.0" (and pages that depend on it).

b. Added "Newtonsoft.Json" Version="12.0.2" (and pages that depend on it).

c. Removed AspNetCoreHostingModel=>InProcess from the application's project file.

What could be causing the issue? How should I go about diagnosing the issue, (other than rolling back the application code bit by bit)?

StackTrace:

2019-05-19T19:19:49.383181992Z [40m[32minfo[39m[22m[49m: Microsoft.AspNetCore.Hosting.Internal.WebHost[1]
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383206193Z       Request starting HTTP/1.1 GET http://simplerproductsscrubber.azurewebsites.net/  
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383210893Z [40m[32minfo[39m[22m[49m: Microsoft.AspNetCore.Routing.EndpointMiddleware[0]
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383214793Z       Executing endpoint 'Page: /Index'
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383218493Z [40m[32minfo[39m[22m[49m: Microsoft.AspNetCore.Routing.EndpointMiddleware[1]
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383222293Z       Executed endpoint 'Page: /Index'
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383239793Z [41m[30mfail[39m[22m[49m: Microsoft.AspNetCore.Diagnostics.ExceptionHandlerMiddleware[1]
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383244393Z       An unhandled exception has occurred while executing the request.
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383247993Z System.BadImageFormatException: Index not found. (Exception from HRESULT: 0x80131124)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383251793Z    at System.RuntimeTypeHandle.ConstructName(RuntimeTypeHandle handle, TypeNameFormatFlags formatFlags, StringHandleOnStack retString)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383255693Z    at System.RuntimeType.RuntimeTypeCache.ConstructName(String& name, TypeNameFormatFlags formatFlags)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383259593Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.ApplicationModels.DefaultPageApplicationModelProvider.CreateModel(PageActionDescriptor actionDescriptor, TypeInfo pageTypeInfo)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383263293Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.ApplicationModels.DefaultPageApplicationModelProvider.OnProvidersExecuting(PageApplicationModelProviderContext context)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383266893Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.RazorPages.Internal.DefaultPageLoader.Load(PageActionDescriptor actionDescriptor)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383270593Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.RazorPages.Internal.PageActionInvokerProvider.OnProvidersExecuting(ActionInvokerProviderContext context)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383274193Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Internal.ActionInvokerFactory.CreateInvoker(ActionContext actionContext)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383277693Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Internal.MvcEndpointDataSource.<>c__DisplayClass21_0.<CreateEndpoint>b__0(HttpContext context)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383281493Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Routing.EndpointMiddleware.Invoke(HttpContext httpContext)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383285093Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Routing.EndpointRoutingMiddleware.Invoke(HttpContext httpContext)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383288493Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Authentication.AuthenticationMiddleware.Invoke(HttpContext context)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383324793Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.StaticFiles.StaticFileMiddleware.Invoke(HttpContext context)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383330093Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Diagnostics.StatusCodePagesMiddleware.Invoke(HttpContext context)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383333793Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Diagnostics.ExceptionHandlerMiddleware.Invoke(HttpContext context)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383582695Z [40m[32minfo[39m[22m[49m: Microsoft.AspNetCore.Routing.EndpointMiddleware[0]
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383591995Z       Executing endpoint 'Page: /Error'
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383803496Z [40m[32minfo[39m[22m[49m: Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.RazorPages.Internal.PageActionInvoker[3]
2019-05-19T19:19:49.383812596Z       Route matched with {page = "/Error", area = ""}. Executing page /Error
2019-05-19T19:19:49.384038497Z [40m[32minfo[39m[22m[49m: Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.RazorPages.Internal.PageActionInvoker[101]
2019-05-19T19:19:49.384047697Z       Executing handler method Scrubber.Pages.ErrorModel.OnGet with arguments ((null)) - ModelState is Valid
2019-05-19T19:19:49.384195798Z [40m[32minfo[39m[22m[49m: Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.RazorPages.Internal.PageActionInvoker[102]
2019-05-19T19:19:49.384203898Z       Executed handler method OnGet, returned result .
2019-05-19T19:19:49.384333699Z [40m[32minfo[39m[22m[49m: Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.RazorPages.Internal.PageActionInvoker[103]
2019-05-19T19:19:49.384341699Z       Executing an implicit handler method - ModelState is Valid
2019-05-19T19:19:49.384470799Z [40m[32minfo[39m[22m[49m: Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.RazorPages.Internal.PageActionInvoker[104]
2019-05-19T19:19:49.384478599Z       Executed an implicit handler method, returned result Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.RazorPages.PageResult.
2019-05-19T19:19:49.391635738Z [40m[32minfo[39m[22m[49m: Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.RazorPages.Internal.PageActionInvoker[4]
2019-05-19T19:19:49.391647438Z       Executed page /Error in 7.6849ms
2019-05-19T19:19:49.391843939Z [40m[32minfo[39m[22m[49m: Microsoft.AspNetCore.Routing.EndpointMiddleware[1]
2019-05-19T19:19:49.391853239Z       Executed endpoint 'Page: /Error'
2019-05-19T19:19:49.393836350Z [41m[30mfail[39m[22m[49m: Microsoft.AspNetCore.Diagnostics.ExceptionHandlerMiddleware[3]
2019-05-19T19:19:49.393846750Z       An exception was thrown attempting to execute the error handler.
2019-05-19T19:19:49.393850550Z System.BadImageFormatException: Bad binary signature. (Exception from HRESULT: 0x80131192)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.393902050Z    at System.Runtime.CompilerServices.RuntimeHelpers._CompileMethod(IRuntimeMethodInfo method)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.393908850Z    at System.Reflection.Emit.DynamicMethod.CreateDelegate(Type delegateType, Object target)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.393966351Z    at System.Linq.Expressions.Compiler.LambdaCompiler.CreateDelegate()
2019-05-19T19:19:49.393978851Z    at System.Linq.Expressions.Compiler.LambdaCompiler.Compile(LambdaExpression lambda)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.393982651Z    at System.Linq.Expressions.Expression`1.Compile(Boolean preferInterpretation)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.393985951Z    at System.Linq.Expressions.Expression`1.Compile()
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394034551Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Razor.Internal.DefaultRazorPageFactoryProvider.CreateFactory(String relativePath)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394152852Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Razor.RazorViewEngine.CreateCacheResult(HashSet`1 expirationTokens, String relativePath, Boolean isMainPage)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394230152Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Razor.RazorViewEngine.OnCacheMiss(ViewLocationExpanderContext expanderContext, ViewLocationCacheKey cacheKey)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394238052Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Razor.RazorViewEngine.LocatePageFromViewLocations(ActionContext actionContext, String pageName, Boolean isMainPage)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394290453Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Razor.RazorViewEngine.FindPage(ActionContext context, String pageName)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394298453Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Razor.RazorView.GetLayoutPage(ViewContext context, String executingFilePath, String layoutPath)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394382253Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Razor.RazorView.RenderLayoutAsync(ViewContext context, ViewBufferTextWriter bodyWriter)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394390853Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Razor.RazorView.RenderAsync(ViewContext context)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394483754Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.ViewFeatures.ViewExecutor.ExecuteAsync(ViewContext viewContext, String contentType, Nullable`1 statusCode)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394490454Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Internal.ResourceInvoker.InvokeResultAsync(IActionResult result)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394493954Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Internal.ResourceInvoker.InvokeNextResultFilterAsync[TFilter,TFilterAsync]()
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394539654Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Internal.ResourceInvoker.Rethrow(ResultExecutedContext context)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394545854Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Internal.ResourceInvoker.ResultNext[TFilter,TFilterAsync](State& next, Scope& scope, Object& state, Boolean& isCompleted)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394587054Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Internal.ResourceInvoker.InvokeResultFilters()
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394593454Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Internal.ResourceInvoker.InvokeNextResourceFilter()
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394596754Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Internal.ResourceInvoker.Rethrow(ResourceExecutedContext context)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394647854Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Internal.ResourceInvoker.Next(State& next, Scope& scope, Object& state, Boolean& isCompleted)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394654555Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Internal.ResourceInvoker.InvokeFilterPipelineAsync()
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394692355Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Internal.ResourceInvoker.InvokeAsync()
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394698155Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Routing.EndpointMiddleware.Invoke(HttpContext httpContext)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394713655Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Routing.EndpointRoutingMiddleware.Invoke(HttpContext httpContext)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394769155Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Authentication.AuthenticationMiddleware.Invoke(HttpContext context)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394775855Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.StaticFiles.StaticFileMiddleware.Invoke(HttpContext context)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394779255Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Diagnostics.StatusCodePagesMiddleware.Invoke(HttpContext context)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.394815655Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Diagnostics.ExceptionHandlerMiddleware.Invoke(HttpContext context)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.402328096Z [41m[30mfail[39m[22m[49m: Microsoft.AspNetCore.Server.Kestrel[13]
2019-05-19T19:19:49.402372796Z       Connection id "0HLMRF8FM006I", Request id "0HLMRF8FM006I:00000001": An unhandled exception was thrown by the application.
2019-05-19T19:19:49.402422297Z System.BadImageFormatException: Index not found. (Exception from HRESULT: 0x80131124)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.402439497Z    at System.RuntimeTypeHandle.ConstructName(RuntimeTypeHandle handle, TypeNameFormatFlags formatFlags, StringHandleOnStack retString)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.402492897Z    at System.RuntimeType.RuntimeTypeCache.ConstructName(String& name, TypeNameFormatFlags formatFlags)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.402499697Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.ApplicationModels.DefaultPageApplicationModelProvider.CreateModel(PageActionDescriptor actionDescriptor, TypeInfo pageTypeInfo)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.402587197Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.ApplicationModels.DefaultPageApplicationModelProvider.OnProvidersExecuting(PageApplicationModelProviderContext context)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.402594898Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.RazorPages.Internal.DefaultPageLoader.Load(PageActionDescriptor actionDescriptor)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.402636698Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.RazorPages.Internal.PageActionInvokerProvider.OnProvidersExecuting(ActionInvokerProviderContext context)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.402650398Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Internal.ActionInvokerFactory.CreateInvoker(ActionContext actionContext)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.402700598Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Internal.MvcEndpointDataSource.<>c__DisplayClass21_0.<CreateEndpoint>b__0(HttpContext context)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.402707498Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Routing.EndpointMiddleware.Invoke(HttpContext httpContext)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.402710898Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Routing.EndpointRoutingMiddleware.Invoke(HttpContext httpContext)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.402788099Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Authentication.AuthenticationMiddleware.Invoke(HttpContext context)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.402795299Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.StaticFiles.StaticFileMiddleware.Invoke(HttpContext context)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.402799099Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Diagnostics.StatusCodePagesMiddleware.Invoke(HttpContext context)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.402848499Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Diagnostics.ExceptionHandlerMiddleware.Invoke(HttpContext context)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.402855199Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Diagnostics.ExceptionHandlerMiddleware.Invoke(HttpContext context)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.402920099Z    at Microsoft.AspNetCore.Server.Kestrel.Core.Internal.Http.HttpProtocol.ProcessRequests[TContext](IHttpApplication`1 application)
2019-05-19T19:19:49.411044143Z [40m[32minfo[39m[22m[49m: Microsoft.AspNetCore.Hosting.Internal.WebHost[2]
2019-05-19T19:19:49.411055543Z       Request finished in 29.3949ms 500 

Update 1:

• When publishing, tried to "Remove Additional Files at destination" option.
• Made sure that all the projects(only one) were being build as "any CPU" in both "debug" and "release" configuration.

I turned on Application Insights on the Azure portal and the issue seems to have been fixed. (I turned it off again). Very weird.